if) 基ei ̄!7础t 尊 夕卜i曲I文精选 n璺举哆E∞明!ign Community Language Learning Diane Larsen-Freeman 1.Introduction The method we will examine in this chapter advises teachers to consider their students as“whole persons.”Whole-person learning means that teach— ers consider not only their students’intellect,but also have some understanding of the relationship among students’ feelings,physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions,and desire to learn. The Community Language Learning Method takes its principles from more general Counseling-Learning approach developed by Charles A.Curran.Curran studied adult learning for many years.He was also influenced by Carl Rogers’humanistic psychology (Rogers 1 95 1;Brown 1994),and he found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation. They are threatened by the change inherent in learning and by the fear that they will appear foolish. Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is for teachers to become“language counselors.’’A language counselor does not mean someone trained in psychology;it means someone who is a skillful understander of the struggle students face as they attempt to internalize another language.The teacher who can“understand”can indicate his acceptance of the student.By understanding students’fears and being sensitive to them,he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning. Let us see how Curran’s ideas are put into practice in the Community Language Learning Method.We will observe a class in a private language jnstitute in Indonesia.Most of the students 2011年第ll1一l2期(总第127期) work during the day and come for language instruction in evening.The class meets two evenings a week for two hours a session.This is the ifrst class. 2.Experience The students a ̄ive and take their seats.The chairs are in a circle around a table that has a tape recorder on it.After greeting the students,the teacher introduces himself and has the students introduce themselves.In Indonesian.he tells the students what they will be doing that evening:They are going to have a conversation in English with his help.The conversation will be tape—recorded.and afterward,they will create a written form of the conversation—a transcript.He tells the class the rest of the evening will be spent doing various activities with the language on the transcript.He then explains how the students are to have the conversation. “Whenever one of you would like to sav something,raise your hand and 1 will come behind you.1 will not be a participant in the conversation except to help you say in English what you want to say.Say what you want to say in Indonesian;1 will give you the English translation.1 will give you the translation in phrases.or’chunks.’Record only the chunks,one at a time.After the conversation when we listen to the recording,you sentence will sound whole.Only your voices in English will be on the tape.Since this is your first English conversation, you may want to keep it simple.We have ten minutes for this activity.” No one speaks at first.Then a young woman raises her hand.The teacher walks to her chair.He srands behind her. “Selamat 0l'e,”she says.The te:acher translates.“Good…”After a little confusion with the switch on the microphone。she puts“Good’’ on the tape and turns the switch off.The teacher thenthen gives eveni‘ “ ‘ng .”and she, and she tri。es to say“evenin‘g’’ in the microphone but only gets out“eve….’’The teacher says again in a clear and warrn voice, somewhat exaggerating the word,“Eve…ning.’’The woman tires again.She shows some signs of her discomfort with the experience,but she succeeds in putting the whole word “evening”on to the recording. Another student raises his hand.The teacher walks to him and stands behind his chair.“Selamat sore.”the second student says to the first student. “Apa Kabar?”he asks of a third.The teacher. already sensing that this student is a bit more secure,gives the entire translation,“Good evening.” “Good evening,”the student says,putting the phrase on the taDe. “How are you?”the teacher continues. “How…,”the student says into the microphone, then turns,obviously seeking help for the rest of the phrase.The teacher,realizing he needed to give smaller chunks,repeats each word separately. “How,”repeats the teacher。“How”,says the student into the microphone. “Are”.repeats the teacher. “Are”,the students says. “You,’’completes the teacher.“You。”the student records. The student to whom the question was directed raises his hand and the teacher stands behind him. “Kabar baik.Terima Kasih。”he responds.“Fine。” the teacher says. “Fine.”the student records. “Thank you,”the teacher completes.“Thank you,’’ the student confidently puts on the tape. A fourth student asks of another,“Nama saudara siapa?”The teacher steps behind her and says.“What’s…your…name?’’pausing after each word to give the student time to put her question successfully on the tape. hTe other student replies.“Nama saya Saleh.” “My name is Saleh ”the teacher says in English. “Apa kabar?”ano.ther student asks Saleh.‘'How are you?”the teacher translates. “Saya tidak sehat,’’ Saleh answers “I am not well,”the teacher }罄0f尊嘲 L檀黯鞠ua弱嚣{嚣魏0乳{ ’稿缘} 霉8话囊{0舰 {:i5秘 t :秘 0 瑶蕻础教育外诱教学研究 夕卜文精选 translates.“Mengap0 asks another student“Why?” says the teacher.“Sebab kepala saya pusing,’’Saleh replies.“Because I have a headache.”translates the teacher.Each of these English utterances is recorded in the manner of the earlier ones,the teacher trying to be sensitive to what size chunk each student can handle with confidence.The teacher then announces that they have five minutes left.During this time the students ask questions like why someone is studying English,what someone does for a living,and what someone’s hobbies are.In this conversation.each student around the table records some English utterance on the tape. After the conversation has ended,the teacher sits in the circle and asks the students in Indonesian how they feel about the experience.OBe student says that he does not remember any of the English he has iust heard.The teacher accepts what he says and responds. “You have a concern that you haven’t learned any English.”The student says.“Yes’’ .Another student says he too,has not learned any English; he was just involved in the conversation The teacher accepts this comment and replies.“Your attention was on the conversation,not on the English.’’Another student says that she does not mind the fact that she cannot remember any English; she has enjoyed the conversation.The teacher accepts her comment and reassures her and all the students that they will yet have an opportunity to learn the English words--that he does not expect them to remember the English phrases at this time. “Would anyone else like to say anything?”the teacher asks.Since there is silence,the teacher continues,“OK,then.Let’s listen to your conver— sation.1 will play the tape.Just listen to your voices in English.”The students listen.“OK’’.the teacher says.“I am going to play the tape again and stop it at the end of each sentence.See if you can recall what you said,and say it again in Indonesian to be sure that everyone understands what was said.If you can’t recall your own sentence.we can all help out.” They have no trouble recalling what was said. Next the teacher asks them to move their chairs int0 a semicircle and t0 watch as he writ s th 2011年第11-12期(总第127期) 蕊 }骚0;9 L女 g 墅f曼氅cn{ l0嚣 tese3 ch"{如0j}0}盟 譬磐 0n 錾础教裔仆诱教学IiIf完 夕卜文精选 conversation Oil the blackboard. lhe teacher asks if anyone would like to operate the tape recorder and stop it at the end of each sentence.No one volunteers,so the teacher operates it himself.The and the student says it again.The teacher repeats it. Three more times the student sta ̄s the computer by saying.“Thank you’’After the teacher has said it .for the third time,the student stops,which in turn teacher then writes line by line,numbering each English sentence.One student asks if he can copy the sentences.The teacher asks him to stay focused on the words being written up at this point and reassures him that there will be time for copying later,if not in this cJass session,then in the next. The teacher writes all the English sentences. Before going back to put in the Indonesian equivalents he quietly underlines the first English word and then pauses.He asks the students to give the Indonesian equivalents.Since no one volunteers the meaning.after a few seconds he writes the literal Indonesian translation.He continues this way until all the sentences are translated,leaving out any tinnecessary repetition. Next,the teacher tells the students to sit back and relax as he reads the transcript of the English conversation.He reads it three times,varying the student task each time.The first time,students just listen.The next time they close their eyes and listen. The last time they silently mouth the words as the teacher reads the conversation. For the next activity.the“Human Computer.”哪 the students are told in a warm manner,“For the next five to ten minutes I am going to turn into a ‘human computer’for yOU.You may use me to practice the pronunciation of any English word or phrase or entire sentence on the transcript.Raise your hand and I'll come behind you.Then you say either the sentence number or the word in English or Indonesian you want to practice.As the computer I am programmed to give back onlY correct English,so you will have to listen carefully to see if what you say matches what I am saying.You may repeat the word,phrase,or sentence as many times as you want.1 will stop only when you stop.You control me;you turn the computer on and ofl'. A student raises his hand and says。“Thank you.”He has trouble with the soond at the beginning of“thank.”The teacher repeats the phrase after him 2011年第11-12期(总第127期) stops the computer. Another student raises his hand and says, “Wlmt do you do?”a question from the transcript. Again the teacher moves behind the student and repeats the question the student has chosen to practice.The student works on this question several times just as the first student did.Several others practice saying some part of the transcript in a similar manner. The teacher then asks the students to work in groups of three to create new sentences based upon the words and phrases of the transcript.Each group writes its sentences down.The teacher walks from group to group to help. rhe first group writes the sentence “Adik not work in a bank.”The teacher gives the correct sentence to the group:“Adik does not work in a bank.”The second group writes“What is my name?’’ “OK”.savs the teacher.After tt1e teacher finishes helping the group,each group reads jts sentences t0 the Iass. The teacher replays the tape two times more while the students listen. Finally,the teacher tells the class they have ten minutes left in the session.He asks them to talk about the experience they have had that evening, their English,and/or their learning process.As students respond,the teacher listens carefully and reflects back to the students in such a way that each feels he or she has been understood.Most of the students are positive about the experience,one student saying that it is the first time she has felt so comfortable in a beginning language class.“I now think I can learn English,”she says. For the next two classes the teacher decides to have the students continue to work with the conversation they created.Some of the activities are as follows: f 11 The teacher selects the verb“be”from the transcript,and together he and the students conjugate it for person and number in the present  ̄orei,cln Language}0秘Gn”1龆教K0¥聘鞠r0n"{ 38{G 娟};0嚣 Of1 器基础款裔讣滔鞍学研究 夕卜文精选 tense.Thev do the same for the verb “do"and for they have created. the regu1ar verb“work.’’ (6)They created a new dialog using words they (2)The students work in small groups to make have learned to say during their conversation. sentences with the new forms.They share the When they finish these activities,the class has sentences they have created with the rest of the another conversation.records it,and uses the new class. transcript as the basis for subsequent activities. (3)Students take turns reading the transcript, one student reading the English and another reading 3.Thinking about the Experience the Indonesian.They have an opportunity to work on their English pronunciation again as wel1. Let US now turn our attention to analyzing what (4)The teacher puts a picture of a person on we saw.On the left,we can list our observations, the blackboard and the students ask questions of that and on the right,we can list the principles we derive person as if they have just met him. from our observations. (5)The students reconstruct the conversation ObservatiOIlS Principles (1)The teacher greets the students,introduces Building a relationship with and among students is himself,and has the students introduce very important. themselves. (2)The teacher tells the students what they are Any new learning experience can be threatening. going to do that evening.He explains the When students have an idea of what will happen procedure of the first activity and sets a time in each activity,they often feel more secure. limit. People learn non-defensively when they feel secnre. (3)Students have a conversation. Language is for communication. (4)The teacher stands behind the students. The superior knowledge and power of the teacher can be threatening.If the teacher does not remain in the front of the classroom,the threat is reduced and the students’learning is facilitated.Also this fosters interaction among students,rather than rfom student to teacher. (5)The teacher translates what the students want The teacher should be sensitive to students’level to say in chunks. of confidence and give them just what they need to be successfu1. (6)The teacher tells them that they have only a Students feel more secure when they know the few minutes remaining for the COl}、 (11’sal iun. linfits of all activity. 2011年第u—l2期(总第127期) 释基础教育舛蕊赣孥硪寅 elg壁l 如n霪 棼g l镪飘 n{n鹱魏 i% ̄ea!ch}n Ej 夕卜文I膏选 强 ∽n Observations Principles (7)Students are invited to talk about how they felt Teacher and students are whole persons.Sharing dunng the conversation. about their learning experience allows learners to get to know one another and to build community. (8)The teacher accepts what each student says. Guided by the knowledge that each learner is unique,the teacher creates an accepting atmosphere.Learners feel flee to lower their defenses and the learning experience becomes less threatening. (9)The teacher understands what the students say. The teacher “c0unsels”the students.He does n0t offer advice,but rather shows them that he is really listening to them and understands what they are saying.By understanding how students feel, the teacher can help students again insights into their own learning process as well as transform their negative feelings,which might otherwise block their learning. (10)The students listen to the tape and give the The students’native language is used to make the Indonesian translation. meaning clear and to build a bridge from the known to the unknown.Students feel more secure when they understand everything. (1 1)The teacher asks the students to form a semicircle in front of the blackboard SO they can see easily. The teacher should take the responsibility for clearly structuring activities in the most appropriate way possible for successful completion of an activity. (1 2)The teacher reassures the students that they Learning at the beginning stages is facilitated if will have time later on to copy the sentences. students attend to one task at a time. (13)The teacher asks the students to give the Indonesian equivalents as he points to different phrases in the transcript.He points to the first phrase and pauses;if no one The teacher encourages students initiative and independence,but does not let students flounder in uncomfortable silences. volunteers the meaning,he writes it himself. (14)The teacher reads the transcript three times. The students relax and listen. Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. 2011年第u—l2期【总第127期) )r0 2秘 L g l髫0 le <;n l袋箍 臻骐础教裔外承赣学硪究 夕卜文精选 ObservatiOIlS Principles (15)In the Human ComputerMT activity,the students choose which phrase they want to Students learn best when they have a choice in what they practice.Students develop an inner practice pronouncing;the teacher,following the student’S lead,repeats the phrase until the learner is satisifed and stops. wisdom about where they need to work.If students feel in control,they can take more responsibility for their own learning. (16)The students learn to listen carefully to see if Students need to learn to discriminate,for what they say matches what the teacher is saying. example,in perceiving the similarities and differences among the target language forms. (1 7)Students work together in groups of three. In groups,students can begin to feel a sense of community and can learn from each other as well as the teacher.Cooperation,not competition,is encouraged. (1 8)The teacher corrects by repeating correctly the sentence the students have created. The teacher should work in a non-threatening way with what the learner has produced. (19)The students read their sentences to the other Developing a community among the class members members of the class. builds trust and can help to reduce the threat of the new learning situation. (20)The teacher plays the tape two more times Learning tend not to take place when the material while the students listen. is too new or,conversely,too familiar.Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty and familiarity. (21)The students are once again invited to talk In addition to reflecting on the language,students about the experience they have had that evening. reflect on what they have experienced.In this way, they have an opportunity to learn about the language,their own learning,and how to learn from one another in community. (22)Other activities with the transcript of the first In the beginning stages.the “syllabus”is conversation occur.Then,the learners have a new conversation. generated primarily by the students.Students are more willing to learn when they have created the material themselves. 2011年第l1—12期(总第127期) 嚣基础鞍 外话教学罐c=r璺{9 L ! g ag冀} acn}ng&婶esf。 eh}n Basic Education 研究 夕卜文_ 遗… (3)What are some characteristics of the 4.Reviewing the Principles teaching/1[earning process? In a beginning class,which is what we Let us now review the principles of the Community Language Learning Method.In answering our ten questions,some additional【information about the method will also be provided. observed,students typically have a conversation using their native language.The teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation in chunks.These chunks are recorded,and when they are replayed,it sounds f1)What are the goals of teachers who use the Community Language Learning Method? Teachers who use the Community Language Learning Method want their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively.In addiiton., they want their students to 1earn about their own learning,,to take increasing responsibility for it,and t0 lealTl how to】earn from one another.AJ1 of these objectives can be accomplished in a non—defensive manner jif a teacher and learner(s'}treat each olther as whole persons,.valuing both thoughts and feelings. f2)What is the role of the teacher?What is the role of hte students? The teacher's initial role is primarily that of a counselor,This does not mean that the teacher is a therapist,.or that the teacher does not teaching. Rather.,it means that the teacher recognizes how threatening a new learning situation can be for adult learners,so he skillfully understands and supports his students in their struggle to master the target language Initially the learners are very dependent upon the teacher.It is recognized,however,that as the learners continue to study,they become increasingly independent. Community Language Learning methodologists have identiifed five stages in this movement from dependency to mutual interdependency with the teacher.In Stage I,II,and III,the teacher focuses not only on the language but also oll being supportive of learners in their learning process.In Stage IV,because of the students'’greater security in the language and readiness to benefit from corrections,the teacher can focus more on accuracy.It should be noted that accuracy is always a focus even in the first three stages;however,it is subordinated to fluency.The reverse is ture in Stage IV alnf{V. 2011年第11一l2期(总第127期) like a fairly fluid conversation.Later,a transcript is made of the conversation,and native language equivalents are written beneath the target language words.The transcription of the conversation become,, a“text”with which students work.Various a(:tiwifies are conducted (for example,,examination of a grammar point,working Oll pronunciation of a particular phrase,or creating new sentences with words from the transcript)that allow students to further explore the language they have generated. During the course of the lesson.,students are invited to say how they feel,and in return the teacher understands them. According to Curran.,there are six elements necessary for nondefensive learning.The first of these is security.Next is aggression,by which Curran means that students should be given an opportunity to assert themselves, be actively involved,and invest themselves in the learning experience.One way of allowing for this in the lesson we observed was f0r students to conduct their own conversation.The third element is attention. One of the skills necessary in learning a second or ofreign language is to be able to attend to many factors simultaneously.To make thds skill easier t0 learn,especilaly at the beginning of the learning process.,the teacher helps to narrow the scope of attention.Recall【that the teacher in our】lesson asks the students not to copy the transcript while he was writing it on the blackboard.Instead.he wanted them to attend to what he was wriitng and to add what translation they may have recalled in order to complete the transcript. The fourth element,reflection,occurred in two different ways in our】.esson.The first was when the students refleetec1 on the language as the teacher i 0f ei☆n L8n 葫qe jeachinq教Hesearch}n uas ̄c Ld(Jcatfofl 鼹基础教鸯舛请教学研究 夕卜文精选 read the transcript three times.The second was when each comment carefully.By showing students he understands how they feel the teacher can help them overcome negative feelings that might otherwise students were invited to stop and consider the active experience they were having.Retention is the fifth element,the integration of the new material that takes place within the whole self.The last element is block their learning. Student security in this lesson was provided for in a number of ways.Some of these were the teacher’s use of the students’native language,telling students precisely what they would be doing during the lesson,respecting established time limits,giving discrimination,sorting out the differences among target language forms.We saw this element when the students were asked to listen to the Human ComputerM and atTtempt to match their pronunciation to the computer’s. (4)What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?What is the nature of student—student interaction? The nature of student—teacher interaction in the Community Language Learning Method changes within the lesson and over time.Sometimes the students are assertive,as when they are having a conversation.At these times,the teacher facilitates their ability to express themselves in the target language.He physically removes himself from the circle,thereby encouraging students to interact with one another.At other times in the lesson.the teacher is very obviously in charge and providing direction. At all times initially the teacher structures the class; at later stages.the students may assume more responsibility for this.As Rardin and Tranel(1988) have observed,the Community Language Learning Method is neither student—centered.nor teacher— centered.but rather teacher—student—centered.with both being decision—makers in the class. Building a relationship with and among students is very important.In a trusting relationship,any debilitating anxiety that students feel can be reduced,thereby helping students to stay open to the learning process.Students can learn from their interaction with each other as well as their interaction with the teacher.A spirit of cooperation, not competition,can prevail. (5)How are the feelings of the students dealt with? Responding to the students’ feelings is considered very important in Counseling—Learning. One regular activity is inviting students to comment on how they fee1.The teacher listens and responds to students only as much language at a time as they could handle,and taking responsibility for clearly structuring activities in the most appropriate way. While security is a basic element of the learning process,the way in which it is provided will change depending upon the stage of the learner. (6)How is language viewed?How is culture viewed? Language is for communication.Curran writes that“learning is persons”,meaning that both teacher and students work at building trust in one another and the learning process.At the beginning of the process,the focus is on “sharing and belonging between persons through the language tasks.’’Then the focus shifts more to the target language which becomes the group’s individual and shared identity. Curran also believes that in this kind of supportive learning process,language becomes the means for developing creative and critical thinking.Culture is an integral part of language learning. (7)What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized? In the early stages,typically the students generate the material since they decide what they want to be able to say in the target language.Later on,after students feel more secure,the teacher might prepare speciifc materilas or work with published textbooks. Particular grammar points,pronunciation patterns,and vocabulary are worked with,based on the language the students have generated.The most important skills are understanding and speaking the language at the beginning,with reinforcement through reading and writing. (8)What is the role of the students’native 2011年第l1—12期(总第127期) 磷k瓣基础鞍鸯外镳教学I ≮ 疆 、 翟“ : 越{lff究 靠 段_蟊。 、 I 1 ^ 一 .¨ t, - 夕卜文精选 language? doing this is f1)r the teacher to repeat correctly what the students has said incorrectly,without calling Students’security is initially enhanced by using their native language.The purpose of using the native language is to provide a bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar.Where possible,literal native language equivalents are given to the target language words that have been transcribed. Fhis makes their meaning clear and allows students to combine the target language words in different ways to create new sentences.Directions in class and sessions during which students express their feelings and are understood are conducted in the native language.In later stages,of course,more and more of the target language can be used.By the time students are in Stages III and IV,their conversations have few native language words and phrases.In a class where the students speak a variety of native languages,conversations take place right from the start in the target language.Meaning is made clear in other ways,with pantomime,pictures and the use of target language synonyms,for example. (9)How is evaluation accomplished? Although no particular mode of evaluation is prescribed in the Community Language Learning Method,whatever evaluation is conducted should be in keeping with the principles of the method.If,for example,the school requires that the students take a test at the end of a course,then the teacher would see to it that the students are adequately prepared ofr taking it. Also,a teacher—made classroom test would likely be more of an integrative test than a discrete—— point one.Students would be asked to write a paragraph or be given an oral interview,rather than being asked to answer a question which deals with only one point of language at a time. Finally,it is likelY that teachers would encourage their students to self-evaluate——to look at their own learning and to become aware of their own progress・ (10)How does the teacher respond to student errors? Teachers should work with what the learner has produced in a non-threatening way.One way of 2011年第】1一l2期(总第127期) further attention to tile error.Techniques depend on where the students are in the five——stage learning process,but are consistent with sustaining a respectful,nondefensive relationship between teacher aI1d stl】dents. 5.Reviewing the Techniques We will review the teehniques described in this lesson and provide a little more detail.You may have agreed with some or aIl of the answers to our ten questions and might like to try!to incorporate some of these techniques into your OWH approach to foreign language teaching.Of course,there also might be techniques you are【 urrently using that Call be adapted so that they are consistent with the whole—person approach we have explored here. (1)Tape recording student eonversation This is a technique used to record student—— generated language as well as g e the opportunity for community learnm g lo c()me about.By giving students the choice about what to say and when to say it,students are i n a good position to take responsibility f0r their own learning.Students are asked to have a conversation using their native language as the common language of the group.In muhi-lingual groups,other means will have to be employed.For instance,students can use gestures to get their meaning across.After each native language utterance or use of a gesture,the teacher translates what the student says or acts out into the target language.The teacher gives the students the target language translation in appropriate-sized chunks. Each chunk is recorded,giving students a final tape recording with only the target language on it. Atier a conversation llas been recolt(ted.it can be replayed.Since the students had a choice in what they wanted to say in the original conversation,it is easier for them to associate meaning with a particular target language utterance.Being able to recall the meaning of almost everything said in a ifrst conversation is motivating for learners. the 黼0 牡l掰n l 秘} {嘲 》街嵇{e藏(:n"l锦蕊}≮e8 瓤: 鹈j雌箍¥;e 窃 ( 嵇嵇0种 鹅基础教育舛滔教学瓣突 夕卜文精选 recording can also be used to simply listen to their voices in the target language. Recording student conversation works best with twelve or fewer students.In a larger class,students can take turns being the ones to have the conversation. their eyes open or shut.A third possibility is for the students to mouth the words as the teacher reads the transcript. (5)Human ComputerTM A student chooses some part of the transcript to practice pronouncing.She is“in control”of the (2)Transcription The teacher transcribes the students’tape— recorded target language conversation.Each student teacher when she tries to say the word or phrase. The teacher,following the student’s lead,repeats the phrase as often as the student wants to practice it. is given the opportunity to translate his or her utterances and the teacher writes the native language equivalent beneath the target language words. Students can copy the transcript after it has been completely written on the blackboard or on large, poster—sized paper,or the teacher may provide them with a copy.The transcript provides a basis for future activities.If poster—sized paper is used,the transcript can be put up in the classroom for later reference and for the purpose of increasing student security. (3)Reflection on experience The teacher takes time during and/or after the various activities to give the students the opportunity to reflect on how they feel about the language learning experience,themselves as learners,and their relationship with one another.As students give their reactions,the teacher understands them--shows that he has listened carefully by giving an appropriate understanding response to what the student has said.He does not repeat what the learner says,but rather shows that he understands its essence.You may wish to return to the lesson we observed where the teacher understood the students’ reactions to their conversation.Such responses can encourage students to think about their unique engagement with the language,the activities,the teacher,and the other students,strengthening their independent learning. (4)Reflective listening The students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target language on the tape. Another possible techniqHe is for the teacher to read the transcript while the students simply listen,with The teacher does not correct the student’s mispronunciation in any way.It is through the teacher’s consistent manner of repeating the word or phrase clearly that the student self-corrects as he or she tries to initiate the teacher's mode1. (6)Small group tasks The small groups in the class we observed were asked to make Dew sentences with the words on the transcript. Afterward,the groups shared the sentences they made with the rest of the class.Later in the week,students working in pairs made sentences with the different verb conjugations. There are a l0t 0f dim rent activities that could occur with students working in small groups. Teachers who use small group activities believe students can learn from each other and can get more practice with the target language by working in small groups.Also,small groups allow students to get to know each other better.This can lcad to the development of a community among class members. 6.Conclusion As indicated early in this chapter,the particular class that we observed represents a first lesson of what is considered a Stage I experience in the Community Language Learning Method.The principles we have drawn from it can also be seen in Stage II,III,IV and V relationships,although they will be implemented in different ways in order to respond appropriately to learner growth. The two most basic principles which underlie the kind of learning that can take place in the Community Language Learning Method are summed 2011年第1l—l2期(总第127期) 瑟基黜教霄外蠡0 lg L ng 謦 舅{88 hing尊Resear } {n}=;a }G Edl{e n0f{ 语教学硪究 夕卜文精遍 up in the following phrases: (1) “Learning is persons,’’which means that whole-person learning of another language takes place best in a relationship of Community Language Learning Method. (1)Have some students tape—record a conversation with your help as the language counselor.Tell them to record only the target language.After you have completed the conversation, trust,support,and cooperation between teacher and students and among students;and(2)“Learning is dynamic and creative,’’which means that learning is a living and developmental process. Do you agree with these two basic principles? Do you believe that a teacher should adopt the role of a counselor;as Curran uses the term?Should the think of five different activities to help them process and review the target language conversation they have created while being consistent with the principles of the Community Language Learning Method. development of a community be encouraged?Do you think that students should be given the opportunity f0r,in effect,creating part of their own syllabus? (2)Try teaching a lesson as you normally do, but think of your students in a whole-person way,if this is a new idea to you.Does this change the way you work?If so.then how? Which of these or any other principles is compatible with your personal approach to teaching? Do you think you could use the technique of tape recording your students’conversation?Should you give your students an opportunity to reflect on their experience?Can you use the Human References and Additional Resources l 1 J Brown,H.Douglas.1994.Pritwiples of Lan— guage Learning and Teaching.(3rd edn.)En— glewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall Regents. Computer ̄?Which of the other techniques can vou see adapting to your teaching style? 1 2 J Curran.Charles A.1 976.Counseling—Learrting in Second Languages.Cliffside Park,NJ:Coun— seling—Learning Institutes. 7.Activities [3]Curran,Charles A.1977.CoM eling—Leat" ing: A.Check your understanding of the Community Language Learning Method. A Whole-person Approach for Education.(2nd edn.)Cliffside Park,NJ:Counseling—Learning Instjtutes. (1)Curran says there are six elements of non— defensive learning:security,aggression,attention, reflection,retention,and discrimination.Some of the Rardin,Jennybelle and Daniel Tranel,with Pa— tricia Tirone and Bernard Green.1988.Educa— ways these were manifest in our lesson were pointed out in answer to questions 3 and 5.Can you find any other examples of these in the class we observed? tion in a New Dimens ion.Cliffside Park,NJ: Counseling—Learning Institutes. [5]Rogers,Car1.1951.Client Centered Therapy Boston,MA:Houghton Miflifn. (2)Curran claims learners pass through five stages of learning as they go from being a beginning Samimy,Keiko and Jennybelle Rardin.1994. “Adult language learner’s affective reactions to community language learning:A descriptive study.”Foreign Language A nnals 27/3:379—90. language learner to an advanced language learner. As they experience these stages,they change from being dependent on the teacher to being mutually interdependent with the teacher.Can you see how 1 7 J Stevick,Earl W.1998.Working with Teaching Methods:What's at Stake Boston,MA:Heinle &Heinle. these students are dependent on the teacher now? Can you find anything in the class we observed that encourages learner independence? B.Apply what you have understood about the (An Excerpt from Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching,2003,P.89-106) 2011年第ll一12期(总第127期)